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Thomas Aquinas
Western Philosophers
Medieval Philosophy

Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli
Full name Thomas Aquinas
Birth 1225 (Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino, Italy)
Death March 7 1274 (Fossanova Abbey, Lazio, Italy)
School/tradition Scholasticism, Founder of Thomism
Main interests Metaphysics (incl. Theology), Logic, Mind, Epistemology, Ethics, Politics
Notable ideas Five Proofs for God's Existence, Principle of double effect
Influenced by
Influenced

Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P. (also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino; b. ca. 1225; d. 7 March, 1274) was an Italian Catholic priest in the Dominican Order, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the scholastic tradition, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis and Doctor Communis. He is frequently referred to as Thomas because "Aquinas" refers to his residence rather than his surname. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy and theology. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived as a reaction against, or as an agreement with, his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law and political theory.

Aquinas is held in the Catholic Church to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood.[1] The works for which he is best-known are the Summa Theologica and the Summa Contra Gentiles. One of the 33 Doctors of the Church, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Catholic Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. Consequently, many institutions of learning have been named after him.

Contents

[edit] Biography

[edit] Early life and desire to become a Dominican (1225-1244)

Aquinas was born c. 1225 at his father Count Landulf's castle of Roccasecca in the Kingdom of Sicily, in the present-day Regione Lazio. Through his mother, Theodora Countess of Theate, Aquinas was related to the Hohenstaufen dynasty of Holy Roman emperors.[2] Landulf's brother Sinibald was abbot of the original Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino. While the rest of the Aquinas sons pursued a military career,[3] the family intended for Aquinas to follow his uncle into the abbacy.[4] This would have been a normal career path for a younger son of southern Italian nobility.[2]

At the age of five, Aquinas began his early education at Monte Cassino but after the military conflict that broke out between the Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX spilled into the abbey in early 1239, Landulph and Theodora had Aquinas enrolled at the studium generale (university) recently established by Frederick in Naples.[5] It was here that Aquinas was likely introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy.[6] It was also during his study at Naples that Aquinas came under the influence of John of St. Julian, a Dominican preacher in Naples, who was part of the active effort by the Dominican order to recruit devout followers.[7]

The Castle of Monte San Giovanni Campano

Aquinas's change of heart did not please his family. In an attempt to prevent interference by Theodora in Aquinas's choice, the Dominicans arranged for Aquinas to be removed to Rome and from Rome, sent to Paris.[8] On his way to Rome, his brothers, per Theodora's instructions, seized him as he was drinking from a spring and took him back to his parents at the castle of Monte San Giovanni Campano.[9] He was held for two years in the family homes at Monte San Giovanni and Rocasecca in an attempt to prevent him from assuming the Dominican habit and to push him into renouncing his new aspiration.[6] Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Aquinas's release, extending the detention,[10] a detention which Aquinas spent tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order.[6] Family members became desperate to dissuade Aquinas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans. At one point two of his brothers hired a prostitute to seduce him, but he drove her away, wielding a burning stick. According to legend, that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate.[11] By 1944, seeing that all of her attempts to dissuade Aquinas had failed, Theodora sought to save face, arranging for Aquinas to escape at night through his window. In her mind, a secret escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans. Aquinas was sent first to Naples and then to Rome to meet Johannes Teutonicus, the Master General of the Order.[12]

[edit] Paris, Cologne, Albert Magnus, and First Paris Regency (1245-1259)

In 1245, Aquinas was sent to study at the University of Paris's Faculty of Arts where he most likely met Dominican scholar Albertus Magnus[13], then the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James in Paris.[14] When Albertus was sent by his superiors to teach at the a new studium generale at Cologne in 1248,[13] Aquinas followed him, declining Pope Innocent IV's offer to appoint him abbot of Monte Cassino as a Dominican.[4] Albertus then appointed the reluctant Aquinas magister studentium.[2] After failing in his first theological disputation, Albertus prophetically exclaimed, "We call him the dumb ox, but in his teaching he will one day produce such a bellowing that it will be heard throughout the world."[4] Aquinas taught in Cologne as a biblical bachelor (baccalareus biblicus), instructing students on the books of the Old Testament and writing Expositio super Isaiam ad litteram (Literal Commentary on Isaiah), Postilla super Ieremiam (Commentary on Jeremiah) and Postilla super Threnos (Commentary on Lamentations).[15] Then in 1252 he returned to Paris to study for the master's degree in theology. He lectured on the Bible and devoted his final three years of study to commenting on Peter Lombard's Sentences. In the first of his four theological syntheses, Aquinas composed a massive commentary on the Sentences entitled Scriptum super libros Sententiarium (Commentary on the Sentences). Aside from his masters writings, he wrote De ente et essentia (On Being and Essence) for his fellow Dominicans in Paris.[4]

In spring of 1256, Aquinas was appointed regent master in theology at Paris and one of his first works upon assuming this office was Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem (Against Those Who Assail the Worship of God and Religion), defending the mendicant orders which had come under attack by William of Saint-Amour.[16] During his tenure from 1256 to 1259, Aquinas wrote numerous works, including: Questiones disputatae de veritate (Disputed Questions on Truth), a collection of twenty-nine disputed questions on aspects of faith and the human condition [17] prepared for the public university debates he presided over on Lent and Advent;[18] Quaestiones quodlibetales (Quodlibetal Questions), a collection of his responses to questions posed to him by the academic audience;[17] and both Expositio super librum Boethii De trinitate (Commentary on Boethius's De trinitate) and Expositio super librum Boethii De hebdomadibus (Commentary on Boethius's De hebdomadibus), commentaries on the works of 6th century philosopher Boethius.[19] By the end of his regency, Aquinas was working on one of his most famous works, Summa contra Gentiles (Synopsis of the Christian Doctrine Directed Against Unbelievers).[20]

Saint Thomas Aquinas

St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra Angelico
Doctor of the Church
Born c. 1225, Roccasecca, in Lazio, Italy
Died 7 March 1274 (aged 49), Fossanuova Abbey, Italy
Venerated in Roman Catholic Church
Canonized 18 July 1323, Avignon, France
Major shrine Church of the Jacobins, Toulouse, France
Feast 28 January (new), 7 March (old)
Attributes The Summa Theologica, a model church, the Sun
Patronage All Catholic educational institutions

[edit] Career

In 1259, Aquinas was present at an important meeting of his order at Valenciennes. At the solicitation of Pope Urban IV, he moved to Rome no earlier than late 1261. In 1263, he attended the London meeting of the Dominican order. In 1268, he lectured in Rome and Bologna. Throughout these years, he remained engaged in the public business of the Catholic Church.[21]

From 1269 to 1271, Aquinas was again active in Paris. He lectured to the students, managed the affairs of the Catholic Church, and advised the king, Louis VIII, his kinsman, on affairs of state.[22] In 1272, the provincial chapter at Florence empowered him to begin a new stadium generale at a location of his choice. Later, the chief of his order and King Charles II brought him back to the professor's chair at Naples.[23]

All this time, Aquinas preached every day, and he wrote homilies, disputations, and lectures. He also worked diligently on his great literary work, the Summa Theologica. The Catholic Church offered to make him archbishop of Naples and abbot of Monte Cassino, but he refused both.[22]

Thomas was canonized primarily for his scholarship and teaching. At his canonization trial, it became evident he did not practice "...extraordinary acts of penance, sensational deeds, and mortifications...[the witnesses] could only repeat unanimously, again and again: Thomas had been a pure person, humble, simple, peace-loving, given to contemplation, moderate, a lover of poetry".[24] These endearing qualities helped him in his beatification. The witnesses praised Thomas for his rational thought.

It is reported in Chesterton's book that Aquinas placed his essay concerning the Eucharist at the bottom of the cross. The friars there claimed to see the image of Jesus descending upon it, and a voice was heard to say, "Thomas, thou hast written well concerning the sacrament of My Body.”On one occasion, monks claimed to have found him levitating. The twentieth century Catholic writer/convert G. K. Chesterton describes these and other stories in his work on Aquinas, The Dumb Ox, a title based on early impressions that Aquinas was not proficient in speech. Chesterton quotes Albertus Magnus' refutation of these impressions: "You call him 'a dumb ox,' but I declare before you that he will yet bellow so loud in doctrine that his voice will resound through the whole world."[25]

Aquinas had a dark complexion, large head and receding hairline, and he was of large stature. His manners showed his breeding, for people described him as refined, affable and lovable. In arguments, he maintained self-control and won over his opponents by his personality and great learning. His tastes were simple. He impressed his associates with his power of memory. When absorbed in thought, he often forgot his surroundings, but he was able to express his thoughts systematically, clearly and simply. Because of his keen grasp of his materials, Aquinas does not make the reader his companion in the search for truth; rather, he teaches authoritatively. On the other hand, he felt dissatisfied by the insufficiency of his works as compared to the divine revelations he had received.[23]

He is said to have spoken on the morning of 6 December 1273, his last words: "Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written now appears of little value."

[edit] Condemnation, death, and canonization

In 1270, the bishop of Paris issued an edict condemning a number of teachings then current at the university, which derived from Aristotle or from Arabic philosophers such as Averroes. The teachings of Thomas were among those targeted. This condemnation gave rise to an investigation in Paris, in response to which the Dominican order prudently moved Thomas to Italy. Eventually, in 1277 (three years after Thomas's death), the bishop of Paris issued another, more detailed edict in which he condemned a series of Thomas's theses as heretical. The bishop of Oxford issued a similar condemnation a few months later. These condemnations echoed the orthodox Augustinian theology of the day, which considered human reason inadequate to understand the will of God.[26]

The 1277 condemnation "has often been depicted as the most dramatic and significant doctrinal censure in the history of the University of Paris, and a landmark in the history of medieval philosophy and theology." [27] In fact, it took many years for Thomas's reputation to recover from this censure.[26] In January 1274, Pope Gregory X directed Thomas to attend the Second Council of Lyons. Aquinas's task was to investigate and, if possible, settle the differences between the Greek and Latin churches. Far from healthy, he undertook the journey. On the way, he stopped at the castle of a niece and there became seriously ill. Aquinas desired to end his days in a monastery. However, he was unable to reach a house of the Dominicans, so he was taken to the Cistercian monastery of Fossa Nuova. After a lingering illness of seven weeks, Aquinas died on 7 March 1274.[23]

In The Divine Comedy, Dante sees the glorified spirit of Aquinas in the Heaven of the Sun with the other great exemplars of religious wisdom. Dante also asserts that Aquinas died by poisoning, on the order of Charles of Anjou (Purg. xx. 69). Villani (ix. 218) cites this belief, and the Anonimo Fiorentino describes the crime and its motive. But the historian Muratori reproduces the account made by one of Aquinas's friends, and this version of the story gives no hint of foul play.[22]

Fifty years after Thomas's death, Pope John XXII, seated in Avignon, pronounced Thomas a saint of the Catholic Church.[23] Thomas's theology had begun its rise to prestige. Two centuries later, in 1567, Pope Pius V ranked the festival of St. Thomas Aquinas with those of the four great Latin fathers: Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory. However, in the same period the Council of Trent would still turn to Duns Scotus before Thomas, as a source of arguments in defence of the Catholic Church. Even though Duns Scotus was consulted at the Council of Trent, Aquinas still maintained the honor of having his Summa Theologica placed on the altar alongside the Bible and the Decretals. It was not until the First Vatican Council that Thomas was elevated to the preeminent status of "teacher of the church".[26]

In his Encyclical of 4 August 1879, Pope Leo XIII stated that Aquinas's theology was a definitive exposition of Catholic doctrine. Thus, he directed the clergy to take the teachings of Aquinas as the basis of their theological positions. Leo XIII also decreed that all Catholic seminaries and universities must teach Aquinas's doctrines, and where Aquinas did not speak on a topic, the teachers were "urged to teach conclusions that were reconcilable with his thinking." In 1880, Aquinas was declared patron of all Catholic educational establishments.

In a monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St. Januarius, a cell in which he supposedly lived is still shown to visitors. His remains were placed in the Church of the Jacobins in Toulouse in 1369. Between 1789 and 1974, they were held in Saint Sernin basilica of Toulouse. In 1974, they were returned to the Church of the Jacobins, where they have remained ever since.

The Roman Catholic Church today celebrates his feast on January 28, the date of publication of the Summa. Before the revision of the Roman calendar in 1969 the feast was observed on March 7, the day of his death.

[edit] Philosophy

"Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit prius in sensu." (Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses) — Aquinas's peripatetic axiom

The philosophy of Aquinas has exerted enormous influence on subsequent Christian theology, especially that of the Roman Catholic Church, extending to Western philosophy in general, where he stands as a vehicle and modifier of Aristotelianism, which he fused with the thought of Augustine. Philosophically, his most important and enduring work is the Summa Theologica, in which he expounds his systematic theology of the quinquae viae.[28]


[edit] Epistemology

Aquinas believed "that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs Divine help, that the intellect may be moved by God to its act." However, he believed that human beings have the natural capacity to know many things without special divine revelation, even though such revelation occurs from time to time, "especially in regard to [topics of] faith."[29] Aquinas was also an Aristotelian and an empiricist. He substantially influenced these two streams of Western thought.

[edit] Revelation

Aquinas believed that truth is known through reason (natural revelation) and faith (supernatural revelation). Supernatural revelation has its origin in the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and is made available through the teaching of the prophets, summed up in Holy Scripture, and transmitted by the Magisterium, the sum of which is called "Tradition". Natural revelation is the truth available to all people through their human nature; certain truths all men can attain from correct human reasoning. For example, he felt this applied to rational proofs for the existence of God.

Though one may deduce the existence of God and His Attributes (One, Truth, Good, Power, Knowledge) through reason, certain specifics may be known only through special revelation (Like the Trinity). In Aquinas's view, special revelation is equivalent to the revelation of God in Jesus Christ. The major theological components of Christianity, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings of the Catholic Church and the Scriptures and may not otherwise be deduced.

Supernatural revelation (faith) and natural revelation (reason) are complementary rather than contradictory in nature, for they pertain to the same unity: truth.

[edit] Analogy

An important element in Aquinas's philosophy is his theory of analogy. Aquinas noted three forms of descriptive language: univocal, analogical, and equivocal.[30]

  • Univocality is the use of a descriptor in the same sense when applied to two objects or groups of objects. For instance, when the word "milk" is applied both to milk produced by cows and by any other female mammal.
  • Analogy, Aquinas maintained, occurs when a descriptor changes some but not all of its meaning. For example, the word "healthy" is analogical in that it applies both to a healthy person or animal (those that enjoy of good health) and to some food or drink (if it is good for the health). Analogy is necessary when talking about God, for some of the aspects of the divine nature are hidden (Deus absconditus) and others revealed (Deus revelatus) to finite human minds. In Aquinas's mind, we can know about God through his creation (general revelation), but only in an analogous manner. We can speak of God's goodness only by understanding that goodness as applied to humans is similar to, but not identical with, the goodness of God.[31]
  • Equivocation is the complete change in meaning of the descriptor and is an informal fallacy. For example, when the word "bank" is applied to river banks and financial banks. Modern philosophers talk of ambiguity.

[edit] Ethics

Aquinas's ethics are based on the concept of "first principles of action."[32] In his Summa Theologica, he wrote:

“ Virtue denotes a certain perfection of a power. Now a thing's perfection is considered chiefly in regard to its end. But the end of power is act. Wherefore power is said to be perfect, according as it is determinate to its act.[33] ”

Aquinas defined the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude. The cardinal virtues are natural and revealed in nature, and they are binding on everyone. There are, however, three theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity. These are supernatural and are distinct from other virtues in their object, namely, God:

“ Now the object of the theological virtues is God Himself, Who is the last end of all, as surpassing the knowledge of our reason. On the other hand, the object of the intellectual and moral virtues is something comprehensible to human reason. Wherefore the theological virtues are specifically distinct from the moral and intellectual virtues.[34] ”

Furthermore, Aquinas distinguished four kinds of law: eternal, natural, human, and divine. Eternal law is the decree of God that governs all creation. Natural law is the human "participation" in the eternal law and is discovered by reason.[35] Natural law, of course, is based on "first principles":

“ . . . this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this . . .[36] ”

The desires to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all human values are based.

Human law is positive law: the natural law applied by governments to societies. Divine law is the specially revealed law in the scriptures.

Aquinas also greatly influenced Catholic understandings of mortal and venial sins.

Aquinas denied that human beings have any duty of charity to animals because they are not persons. Otherwise, it would be unlawful to use them for food. But this does not give us license to be cruel to them, for "cruel habits might carry over into our treatment of human beings."[37]

17th century sculpture of Thomas Aquinas.

[edit] Theology

Aquinas viewed theology, or the sacred doctrine, as a science,[38] the raw material data of which consists of written scripture and the tradition of the Catholic church. These sources of data were produced by the self-revelation of God to individuals and groups of people throughout history. Faith and reason, while distinct but related, are the two primary tools for processing the data of theology. Aquinas believed both were necessary - or, rather, that the confluence of both was necessary - for one to obtain true knowledge of God. Aquinas blended Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine by suggesting that rational thinking and the study of nature, like revelation, were valid ways to understand God. According to Aquinas, God reveals himself through nature, so to study nature is to study God. The ultimate goals of theology, in Aquinas’ mind, are to use reason to grasp the truth about God and to experience salvation through that truth.

[edit] Nature of God

Aquinas believed that the existence of God is neither obvious nor unprovable. In the Summa Theologica, he considered in great detail five reasons for the existence of God. These are widely known as the quinquae viae, or the "Five Ways."

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas felt the best approach, commonly called the via negativa, is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five statements about the divine qualities:

  1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.[39]
  2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.[40]
  3. God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.[41]
  4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.[42]
  5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."[43]

In this approach, he is following, among others, the Jewish philosopher Maimonides.[44]

[edit] Nature of the Trinity

Aquinas argued that God, while perfectly united, also is perfectly described by Three Interrelated Persons. These three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are constituted by their relations within the essence of God. The Father generates the Son (or the Word) by the relation of self-awareness. This eternal generation then produces an eternal Spirit "who enjoys the divine nature as the Love of God, the Love of the Father for the Word."

This Trinity exists independently from the world. It transcends the created world, but the Trinity also decided to communicate God's self and God's goodness to human beings. This takes place through the Incarnation of the Word in the person of Jesus Christ and through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit (indeed, the very essence of the Trinity itself) within those who have experienced salvation by God.[45]

[edit] Nature of Jesus Christ

In the Summa Theologica, Aquinas begins his discussion of Jesus Christ by recounting the biblical story of Adam and Eve and by describing the negative effects of original sin. The purpose of Christ's Incarnation was to restore human nature by removing "the contamination of sin", which humans cannot do by themselves. "Divine Wisdom judged it fitting that God should become man, so that thus one and the same person would be able both to restore man and to offer satisfaction."[46]

Aquinas argued against several specific contemporary and historical theologians who held differing views about Christ. In response to Photinus, Aquinas stated that Jesus was truly divine and not simply a human being. Against Nestorius, who suggested that Son of God was merely conjoined to the man Christ, Aquinas argued that the fullness of God was an integral part of Christ's existence. However, countering Apollinaris' views, Aquinas held that Christ had a truly human (rational) soul, as well. This produced a duality of natures in Christ. Aquinas argued against Eutyches that this duality persisted after the Incarnation. Aquinas stated that these two natures existed simultaneously yet distinguishably in one real human body, unlike the teachings of Manichaeus and Valentinus.[47]

In short, "Christ had a real body of the same nature of ours, a true rational soul, and, together with these, perfect Deity." Thus, there is both unity (in his one hypostasis) and diversity (in his two natures, human and Divine) in Christ.[48]

[edit] Goal of human life

In Aquinas's thought, the goal of human existence is union and eternal fellowship with God. Specifically, this goal is achieved through the beatific vision, an event in which a person experiences perfect, unending happiness by comprehending the very essence of God. This vision, which occurs after death, is a gift from God given to those who have experienced salvation and redemption through Christ while living on earth.

This ultimate goal carries implications for one's present life on earth. Aquinas stated that an individual's will must be ordered toward right things, such as charity, peace, and holiness. He sees this as the way to happiness. Aquinas orders his treatment of the moral life around the idea of happiness. The relationship between will and goal is antecedent in nature "because rectitude of the will consists in being duly ordered to the last end [that is, the beatific vision]." Those who truly seek to understand and see God will necessarily love what God loves. Such love requires morality and bears fruit in everyday human choices.[49]

[edit] Modern influence

Many modern ethicists both within and outside the Catholic Church (notably Philippa Foot and Alasdair MacIntyre) have recently commented on the possible use of Aquinas's virtue ethics as a way of avoiding utilitarianism or Kantian deontology. Through the work of twentieth century philosophers such as Elizabeth Anscombe (especially in her book Intention), Aquinas's principle of double effect specifically and his theory of intentional activity generally have been influential.

It is remarkable that Aquinas's aesthetic theories, especially the concept of claritas, deeply influenced the literary practice of modernist writer James Joyce, who used to extol Aquinas as being second only to Aristotle among Western philosophers. The influence of Aquinas's aesthetics also can be found in the works of the Italian semiotician Umberto Eco, who wrote an essay on aesthetic ideas in Aquinas (published in 1956 and republished in 1988 in a revised edition).

The pioneer of neurodynamics, cognitive neuroscientist Walter Freeman, considers the work of Aquinas important in modeling intentionality, the directedness of the mind toward what it is aware of.

[edit] Other views

[edit] Sacraments

For Aquinas' writing justifying the sacraments, see Aquinas and the Sacraments.

[edit] Various topics

For Aquinas' discussion of the death penalty, usury, existentialism, and forced baptism of the children of Jews and heretics, see Thought of Thomas Aquinas.

[edit] Biographies

Many biographies of Aquinas have been written over the centuries, one of the most notable by G. K. Chesterton.

[edit] See also

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[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Code of Canon Law, Can. 252, §3 [1]
  2. ^ a b c Schaff, p. p. 422.
  3. ^ Hampden, p. 14.
  4. ^ a b c d Stump, p. 3.
  5. ^ Davies, pp. 1-2
  6. ^ a b c Davies, p. 2
  7. ^ Hampden, pp. 21-22.
  8. ^ Hampden, p. 23.
  9. ^ Hampden, p. 23.
  10. ^ Hampden, p. 24.
  11. ^ Hampden, p. 25.
  12. ^ Hampden, pp. 27-28.
  13. ^ a b Healy, p. 2.
  14. ^ Hampden, p. 33.
  15. ^ Stump, p. xvi.
  16. ^ Aquinas, Thomas; Richard J. Regan, Brian Davies (2003). On Evil. Oxford University Press US. p. 5. ISBN 0-1950-9183-3. 
  17. ^ a b Stump, p. 4.
  18. ^ Davies, pp. 3-4.
  19. ^ Stump, p. xvii.
  20. ^ Davies, p. 4.
  21. ^ Schaff, pp. 422-423.
  22. ^ a b c "Aquinas, Thomas", Encyclopædia Britannica (1911), pg. 250.
  23. ^ a b c d Schaff, p. 423.
  24. ^ Pieper, Josef (1991). Guide to Thomas Aquinas. Ignatius Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-8987-0319-0. 
  25. ^ Conway, Placid (1911). "Noon". Saint Thomas Aquinas. London: Longmans, Green and Co.. 
  26. ^ a b c Kung, p. 112.
  27. ^ Condemnation of 1277 entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Thijssen, Hans
  28. ^ Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-1315-8591-6. 
  29. ^ Summa, Q109a1
  30. ^ Sproul, R.C. (1998). Renewing Your Mind: Basic Christian Beliefs You Need to Know. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. p. 33. ISBN 0-8010-5815-5. 
  31. ^ Geisler, p. 726.
  32. ^ Geisler, p. 727.
  33. ^ Summa, Q55a1.
  34. ^ Summa, Q62a2.
  35. ^ Pojman, Louis (1995). Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. ISBN 0-5345-6138-1. 
  36. ^ Summa, Q94a2.
  37. ^ Honderich, Ted, ed. (1995), "Animals: Peter Singer", The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford, pp. 35-36 
  38. ^ Saint Thomas Aquinas entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by McInerny, Ralph and John O'Callaghan
  39. ^ Kreeft, pp. 74-77.
  40. ^ Kreeft, pp. 86-87.
  41. ^ Kreeft, pp. 97-99.
  42. ^ Kreeft, p. 105.
  43. ^ Kreeft, pp. 111-112.
  44. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Aquinas, Thomas
  45. ^ Nichols, Aidan (2002). Discovering Aquinas. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 173-174. 
  46. ^ Aquinas, pp. 228-229.
  47. ^ Aquinas, pp. 231-239.
  48. ^ Aquinas, pp. 241, 245-249. Emphasis is the author's.
  49. ^ Kreeft, p. 383.

[edit] References

[edit] Books

  • Aquinas, Thomas (2002). Aquinas's Shorter Summa''. Manchester, NH: Sophia Institute Press. ISBN 1-9288-3243-1. 
  • Copleston, Frederick (1991). Aquinas: An Introduction to the Life and Work of the Great Medieval Thinker. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-1401-3674-6. 
  • Davies, Brian (2004). Aquinas: An Introduction. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-7095-5. 
  • Healy, Nicholas M. (2003). Thomas Aquinas: Theologian of the Christian Life. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.. ISBN 0-7546-1472-7. 
  • Kreeft, Peter (1990). Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-8987-0300-X. 
  • Kung, Hans (1994). Great Christian Thinkers. New York: Continuum Books. ISBN 0-8264-0848-6. 
  • Craig Paterson & Matthew S. Pugh (eds.), Analytical Thomism: Traditions in Dialogue. Ashgate, 2006. Introduction to Thomism
  • Stump, Eleonore (2003). Aquinas. Routledge. 

[edit] Encyclopedia

[edit] Further reading

  • Boland, Vivian (2007). St Thomas Aquinas: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8400-X. 
  • Grabmann, Martin; Virgil George Michel (1963). Thomas Aquinas, his personality and thought.. New York: Russell & Russell. 

[edit] External links

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Catholic Church
Organizations, Papacy, Teachings and Liturgical Traditions
History
Hierarchy
Theology
Sacraments
Mariology
Doctors of
the Church
Pope Benedict XVI
Preceding Popes
Orders & Societies
Vatican II
Particular Churches
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Liturgical Traditions